No one desires the strife of war in life, but it is sometimes necessary and morally justified to engage in war. An example of consequentialism is utilitarianism. Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges whether or not something is right by what its consequences are. PMC In one moment Jim goes from being a tourist in a foreign country to becoming a murderer for the sake of morality. From a consequentialist point of view it doesnt matter who commits the murder, merely the amount of lives lost in the end, so Jim would be just as responsible for the deaths as the captain is surely an absurd outcome. 124). Consequentialism entails that we can be held morally responsible for a lack of action, and whilst the case of the drowning child shows that it is possible to be indirectly responsible by not acting, in cases like Jims it involves going further than can be reasonably expected. How could we have speeding laws, for example, if it would sometimes be ethical to break the speed limit? The theory is also impartial. Careers. All Rights Reserved. How can we perceive and address ethical challenges in public health practice and policy? (b). Williams furthers this explanation; making the best of a bad job is one of its maxims, and it will have something to say even on the difference between massacring seven million, and massacring seven million and one (Consequentialism and its Critics, 1988). What matters is not so much the horrific act in itself but the outcome of that act. B. Consequentialism- main emphasis is on the outcome or consequence of the action . Counselling and bespoke consulting programs to help you make better decisions and navigate complexity. The question that concerns me, is, to what extent is a normative theory, consequentialism in particular, constrained by requirements that stem from If the outcome is good, how one achieved the outcome is not that important. Whilst the drowning child example seems to support the existence of negative responsibility, it differs in that there are no commitments or beliefs preventing us from saving the child. 2016;2016(5):2-3. Copyright 2023 American Medical Association. For instance, most people would agree that lying is wrong. Consequentialism is an attractive ethical approach because it provides clear and practical guidance at least in situations where outcomes are easy to predict. Reimagining Medical Education in the Age of AI, Steven A. Wartman, MD, PhD and C. Donald Combs, PhD. Closed loop deep brain stimulation for PTSD, addiction, and disorders of affective facial interpretation: review and discussion of potential biomarkers and stimulation paradigms. 1-2.) Epub 2019 Apr 11. The peace that seems within reach, the reduction of gun related crimes and homicides, the dream of borderless territories and the future of a society that bears the fertile ground of excellence and achievement, can now be balanced on the spectrum of consequentialism. Consequentialism is a normative ethics theory whereby the ends justify the means; in other words, the consequence of an action justifies the moral acceptability of an action of the means taken to reach that end. (Though, most versions of non-consequentialism allow some ethical relevance of consequences). To do so, lets look at a current example of limited resources, such as ventilators, in hospitals during the Covid-19 outbreak and how we may decide which patients should be allocated these resources. Utilitarianism judges consequences by a greatest good for the greatest number standard. Disregarding our integrity and alienating ourselves from our values and social ideas is likely to result in a life of unhappiness. The viewpoints expressed in this article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the AMA. Int J Environ Res Public Health. In this particular case, a foreign power decides to hear the cries of the oppressed and begins to lend its diplomatic and political support to make a moral claim for whatever sort of intervention to resolve the conflict. Keeping to those rules ensures that. Automated depression diagnosis based on facial dynamic analysis and sparse coding. (2). The use of FRT in health care suggests the importance of informed consent, data input and analysis quality, effective communication about incidental findings, and potential influence on patient-clinician relationships. The same could be said for Jim who by doing nothing is responsible for the lives of the twenty Indians. In: Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE 28th Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering (CCECE); May 3-6, 2015; Halifax, Canada:1199-1202. First published Wed Nov 21, 2007; substantive revision Fri Oct 30, 2020. Cachn-Prez JM, Gonzalez-Villanueva P, Rodriguez-Garcia M, Oliva-Fernandez O, Garcia-Garcia E, Fernandez-Gonzalo JC. FRT systems can store data as a complete facial image or as a facial template.34 Facial templates are considered biometric data and thus personally identifiable information.35 The idea that a photo can reveal private health information is relatively new, and privacy regulations and practices are still catching up. Privacy and data protections are key to advancing FRT and making it helpful. Williams example shows that consequentialism disregards the agents own personal commitments and allows for negative responsibility. May 17, 2017. https://undark.org/article/facial-recognition-technology-biased-understudied/. If all we are concerned with is getting good outcomes, this can seem to justify harming some people in order to benefit others. MedCity News. Shakya S, Sharma S, Basnet A. Implementing machine learning in health careaddressing ethical challenges. Answer (1 of 4): The term 'consequentialism' was coined by the philosopher G E M Anscombe in her 1958 paper, 'Modern Moral Philosophy' (Philosophy 33, No. Instant access to millions of ebooks, audiobooks, magazines, podcasts and more. He said, she said: Investigating the Christian Porter Case. Particularly in Italy, where the death toll and strain on hospitals has reached a critical point, there is a policy now to prioritise treating younger patients and healthcare workers. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. If such a public health goal (e .g., herd immunity, protecting the most vulnerable, protecting the capacity of the acute health care system) can be achieved with less co ercive -1- COVID-19 and mandatory vaccination: Ethical considerations and caveats July 2, 2014. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/can-your-face-reveal-how-long-youll-live-new-technology-may-provide-the-answer/2014/07/02/640bacb4-f748-11e3-a606-946fd632f9f1_story.html. Use of facial recognition technology for medical purposes: balancing privacy with innovation. Nurses use these in contributing to the resolution of these dilemmas. In other words, the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest amount of happiness or welfare. There are two broad schools of ethical theory: consequentialism and non-consequentialism. https://research.nhgri.nih.gov/atlas/. government site. To demonstrate this I will use an adapted version of John Harris Survival Lottery thought experiment (this thought experiment is a theoretical example used to highlight the objection and is not to be taken literally): Let us imagine we have five patients who require organ transplants. Wellcome TrustFunded Monographs and Book Chapters. Automatic face classification of Cushings syndrome in womena novel screening approach. 2012 Jul;68(7):1516-25. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.2011.05897.x. Epub 2022 Apr 9. Activate your 30 day free trialto unlock unlimited reading. Unable to load your collection due to an error, Unable to load your delegates due to an error. FRT tools that assist with identification, monitoring, and diagnosis are expected to play a prominent role in the future of health care.6,18 Some applications have already been implemented.13,19 As FRT is increasingly utilized in health care settings, informed consent will need to be obtained not only for collecting and storing patients images but also for the specific purposes for which those images might be analyzed by FRT systems.20 In particular, patients might not be aware that their images could be used to generate additionally clinically relevant information. Sooner or later, after all diplomatic and political channels are exhausted to reach a solution, they begin to take up arms against the oppressor. 2005 Dec;31(12):739-42. doi: 10.1136/jme.2005.011908. The more good consequences an act produces, the better or more right that act. Jordan Belfort (played by Leonardo DiCaprio) in The Wolf of Wall Street is probably the popular idea of the . Stud Health Technol Inform. An action that brings about more benefit than harm is good, while an action that causes more harm than benefit is not. Consequentialism requires that the agent should step outside herself, as it were, and assess the consequences not in terms of prior commitments, but just on the results produced. An action that brings about more benefit than harm is good, while an action that causes more harm than benefit is not. Information. Cloud-assisted speech and face recognition framework for health monitoring. sharing sensitive information, make sure youre on a federal Epub 2011 Dec 6. October 6, 2017. http://www.clinicalinformaticsnews.com/2017/10/06/3d-facial-recognition-gives-healthcare-data-a-new-look.aspx. In: Philosophical Foundations of Medical Law. It is one of the main causes of preventable blindness in young children from developing countries. There are two broad schools of ethical theory: consequentialism and non-consequentialism. MeSH Equality is certainly one of the key principles behind Utilitarian philosophy. In order to meet these challenges effectively, we need to identify how nurses contribute the resolution of these dilemmas. Front Neurosci. What should he do?Bernard Williams in the book Utilitarianism: For and Against, by J.J.C. Any consequentialist ethical theory has to provide a justification of how we decide which consequences are good or bad. Use and Significance of Nursing Diagnosis in Hospital Emergencies: A Phenomenological Approach. Watson M. Keeping your machine learning models up-to-date: continuous learning with IBM Watson machine learning (part 1). Wired. ISSN 2376-6980. Disclaimer. The consequentialist could retort that in calculating what course of action is right, the individuals integrity can be taken into account. According to consequentialism, the right act is that act which has the best consequences. FOIA You must recall and relate knowledge of how the professionals in the case studies promote equality and diversity and the skills and attributes needed to do this.. 25 (4). Some of the moral philosophers associated with this theory include Jeremy Bentham, David Hume, Henry Sidgwick and many others. A person should do whatever leads to the best consequence. The SlideShare family just got bigger. 5 Health Care Ethics - Critical Issues for the 21st Century; Eileen E. Morrison ; About the . 2017;8:1883. The happiness of the individual is overridden by the happiness of the masses. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. Does the pain that Jim would feel not need to be taken into account when looking at the best overall outcome? Get the latest inspiration, intelligence, events & more. In effect we become moral martyrs, surrendering our integrity (leading to alienation) in order to achieve what they believe is morally right. On the next ward is Patient A who has a curable disease and also is a suitable donor for the other patients. For consequentialism this is not a problem, as the individual is just a mechanism for maximising overall happiness; they are instrumental. When expanded it provides a list of search options that will switch the search inputs to match the current selection. You can update your choices at any time in your settings. 14,15 Another major area for FRT applications in health care is patient identification and monitoring, such . Maximizing Consequentialism = moral rightness depends only on which consequences are best (as opposed to satisfactory or an improvement over the status quo). Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008, Pub L No. Something is then considered "wrong" if it creates the opposite reaction. According to consequentialism, the right act is that act which has the best consequences. But if telling a lie. The strong point of consequentialism is that it provides a clear and easy-to-understand guideline. New technology may provide the answer. It is frequently maintained that an exclusively consequentialist morality uniquely possesses certain advantages; I shall argue that the case for the superiority of consequentialism has yet to be made out. Virtue ethics: focusing on the moral character, or . Any prior commitments are disregarded or, if taken into consideration, are unlikely to have any substantial effect on the outcome. Nurs Ethics. However, since Jim is an honoured visitor from another land, the captain is happy to offer him a guests privilege of killing one of the Indians himself. The legal and ethical concerns that arise from using complex predictive analytics in health care. Being such a controversial topic some might argue that abortion should be considered murder, while others simply see it as a way to get rid of a problem. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies Hughes N. Google takes aim at controversial, stringent Illinois biometric privacy law. Bias. Facial recognition technology (FRT) utilizes software to map a persons facial characteristics and then store the data as a face template.1 Algorithms or machine learning techniques are applied to a database to compare facial images or to find patterns in facial features for verification or authentication purposes.2 FRT is attractive for a variety of health care applications, such as diagnosing genetic disorders, monitoring patients, and providing health indicator information (related to behavior, aging, longevity, or pain experience, for example).3-5, FRT is likely to become a useful tool for diagnosing many medical and genetic conditions.6,7 Machine learning techniques, in which a computer program is trained on a large data set to recognize patterns and generates its own algorithms on the basis of learning,8 have already been used to assist in diagnosing a patient with a rare genetic disorder that had not been identified after years of clinical effort.9 Machine learning can also detect more subtle correlations between facial morphology and genetic disorders than clinicians.4 It is thought that FRT can therefore eventually be used to assist in earlier detection and treatment of genetic disorders,10,11 and computer applications (commonly known as apps) such as Face2Gene have been developed to assist clinicians in diagnosing genetic disorders.12, FRT has other potential health care applications. To identify the values, beliefs and contextual influences that inform decision-making. This chapter discusses consequentialism. M1- Analyse the impact of prevening discriminaion for individuals with diferent needs. Published March 3, 2014. Even if the damage to Jims integrity is taken into account, there is another problem: the consequentialist would regard Jims killing another person not merely as preferable, but as morally required. January 11, 2018. https://medium.com/@blaisea/do-algorithms-reveal-sexual-orientation-or-just-expose-our-stereotypes-d998fafdf477. Facial shape analysis identifies valid cues to aspects of physiological health in Caucasian, Asian, and African populations. Looks like youve clipped this slide to already. Also, it is advantageous because there is no guesswork; the physician does not have to predictconsequences because while . Employers might also be interested in using FRT tools to predict mood or behavior as well as to predict longevity, particularly for use in wellness programs to lower employers health care costs. Sandolu A. Samples. Accessed July 25, 2018. If Jim refuses to kill anyone then he is therefore responsible for the deaths of the others. National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health. Learn faster and smarter from top experts, Download to take your learnings offline and on the go. Before 497 - 516. As FRT becomes capable of detecting a wider range of health conditions, such as behavioral24 or developmental disorders,25 health care organizations and software developers will need to decide which types of analyses should be included in a FRT system and the conditions under which patients might need to be informed of incidental findings. Putting ethics at the centre of everyday life. Accessed October 26, 2018. 13 FRT is also being applied to predict behavior, pain, and emotions by identifying facial expressions associated with depression or pain, for example. Of course, if Jim refuses, then there is no special occasion, and Pedro here will do what he was about to do when Jim arrived, and kill them all The men against the wall and the other villagers understand the situation, and are obviously begging him to accept. . Biom Technol Today. Robert Torrance continues a debate, started by Charlotte Blease in an earlier issue of the Journal of Medical Ethics, about what conditions must be met in order for patients to consent to receive electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) ( see page 371 ). Roughly speaking, the consequentialist believes that outcomes are all that matter, and that people should therefore endeavor to act so as to produce the best consequences, based on an impartial perspective as to what is best. FRT is being developed to predict health characteristics, such as longevity and aging. These include efforts to create AI systems that explain the rationale behind the results generated.31 Clinicians can also be trained to consider and respond to limitations and biases of FRT systems.32 In addition, organizations such as the National Human Genome Research Institute have sought to diversify the range of people whose images are included in their image databases.33. official website and that any information you provide is encrypted Instead, Mill believed we should figure out which set of rules would create the most happiness over an extended period of time and then apply those in every situation. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/privacy/special-topics/de-identification/index.html. 2005 Oct;25(5):312-27. Accessed May 24, 2018. The Survival Lottery thought experiment highlights that there are actions which we consider morally right or wrong regardless of the amount of happiness or welfare produced. Before In-depth content analysis of the data was undertaken via NVivo coding and thematic identification. As with any new health technology, careful attention should be paid to the accuracy and validity of FRT used in health care applications as well as to informed consent and reporting incidental findings to patients. The most famous form of consequentialist ethics is utilitarianism which was first proposed by Jeremy Bentham and then furthered by John Stuart Mill in the 19th century. Guidance regarding methods for de-identification of protected health information in accordance with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) Privacy Rule. One way is by using ethical concepts to shed light on everyday practice. 2017;242:797-804. Brittany Hollister, PhD and Vence L. Bonham, JD, Ethical Dimensions of Using Artificial Intelligence in Health Care. You can read four articles free per month. Wicklund E. EHR provider touts mHealth access by Apples facial recognition app. We've encountered a problem, please try again. The ethics of clinical innovation in psychopharmacology: challenging traditional bioethics. Epub 2021 May 4. And this is the central problem; that Jims values are seen as unimportant when it comes to deciding how he should act in the given situation. Accessed October 26, 2018. Weve updated our privacy policy so that we are compliant with changing global privacy regulations and to provide you with insight into the limited ways in which we use your data. FRT is being developed to predict health characteristics, such as longevity and aging.13 FRT is also being applied to predict behavior, pain, and emotions by identifying facial expressions associated with depression or pain, for example.14,15 Another major area for FRT applications in health care is patient identification and monitoring, such as monitoring elderly patients for safety or attempts to leave a health care facility16 or monitoring medication adherence through the use of sensors and facial recognition to confirm when patients take their medications.17. Given its insistence on summing the benefits and harms of all people, utilitarianism asks us to look beyond self-interest to consider impartially the interests of all persons affected by our actions. Philos Public Aff. As consequentialism only looks at the consequences it allows for negative responsibility; that is, being held morally accountable not for some action, but for failing to act to prevent bad things happening. A few states, such as Illinois, have regulations that limit uses for which consumer biometric data can be collected.36 The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) governs handling of patients health records and personal health information and includes privacy protections for personally identifiable information. Designer Babies: Where Should We Draw the Line? Why facial recognition is the future of diagnostics. Beneficence and non-maleficence to weigh out the benefits and the duty of doing no harm to subsequently consider what is in the patient's best interest. Broader influence of FRT. This will take a team effort and true representation of humility and togetherness. According to this theory, it would be unethical for you to speed on an empty street at two oclock in the morning. One of the consequences of a breach of confidentiality could be that the patient will lose trust in his/her doctor, and perhaps doctors generally, resulting in him/her not accessing healthcare in the future with a detrimental effect on his/her (and others?) Nurses' experiences of providing ethical care to the patients with COVID-19: A phenomenological study. Data Lab. Utilitarianism would permit a doctor to allow Patient A to die and for their organs to be used to save the lives of the other five patients. The PubMed wordmark and PubMed logo are registered trademarks of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). Nurses use their moral reasoning based on their beliefs and values when faced with ethical dilemmas. Acta Otorhinolaryngol Ital. A study of nurses' ethical climate perceptions: Compromising in an uncompromising environment. 01 December 2016. But it's more than just one rival among many, for every plausible moral theory must concede that the goodness of an act's consequences is something that matters even if it's not the only thing that matters. Also, in certain situations, consequentialism can lead to decisions that are objectionable, even though the consequences are arguably good. As considered here, numerous applications of FRT in health care settings suggest the ethical, clinical, and legal importance of informed consent, data input and analysis quality, effective communication about incidental findings, and potential influence on patient-clinician relationships. health ethics. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the This site uses cookies to recognize users and allow us to analyse site usage. Updated October 19, 2016. One World Identity. There is important reason for the root word. Cohen IG, Amarasingham R, Shah A, Xie B, Lo B. Mazura JC, Juluru K, Chen JJ, Morgan TA, John M, Siegel EL. Benthams theory of utilitarianism focussed on which actions were most likely to make people happy. [4] Consequentialism One potential issue is that of liability. Utilitarians claim that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness and that what is desirable is pleasure and the freedom from pain. The other way of thinking about the relationship is the focus of this paper. Utilitarianism in Public Health January 2016 . and transmitted securely. Let us take the example of a minority being oppressed in a country. It is not unreasonable to say that in this example you should pause your duck feeding and jump in to save the child. What Are Important Ethical Implications of Using Facial Recognition Technology in Health Care? consequentialism can give us an account of responsibility. Protecting your patients interests in the era of big data, artificial intelligence, and predictive analytics. In practice this a very difficult thing to do to step outside of the values we have been brought up with and the state of being alienated itself often causes unhappiness within the individual. Undark. Complex and expensive treatment options have increased the frequency and emphasis of ethical decision-making in healthcare. The relatively small, single-site sample may not account for the effects of organisational culture on the results; the findings suggested that professional relationships were key to resolving ethical dilemmas. Geriatr Nurs. Because it counted every persons pleasure or pain as the same, regardless of age, wealth, race, etc. For a theory often touted as promoting happiness, this is a problem. Medical law exists at the intersection between consequentialism and deontology. Consequentialism teaches that people should do whatever produces the greatest amount of good consequences. The foregoing are just a sample of the ethical approaches a healthcare professional may adopt in practice and it may be argued that there are three main moral theories from which these approaches may, in part, spring, namely virtue ethics, deontology and consequentialism. Bookshelf The simplest form of consequentialism is classical (or hedonistic) utilitarianism, which asserts that an action is right or wrong according to whether it maximizes the net balance of pleasure over pain in the universe. Epub 2014 Sep 24. 1. The desire to save people's lives sometimes does not allow doctors to understand that some patients want the opposite. Healthcare workers often face a problem of decision - making. Utilitarianism in this instance appears to give the morally incorrect answer. Bina RW, Langevin JP. Rule-consequentialism avoids a number of problems which have caused trouble to act-consequentialists. In this chapter, we will begin by defining consequentialism, and contrasting it with deontology. Type. According to non-consequentialism, the rightness of an action is not solely determined by its consequences. September 6, 2017. https://www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2017/09/06/ten-things-everyone-should-know-about-machine-learning. Our work is only made possible because of you. Accessed December 10, 2018. Accessed August 1, 2018. This button displays the currently selected search type. Although there are references to this idea in the works of ancient philosopherEpicurus, its closely associated with English philosopherJeremy Bentham. But if telling a lie would help save a person's life, consequentialism says it's the right thing to do. By saying that Jim should shoot the one Indian the consequentialist fails to take into account the impact that this would have on Jims life. Understanding different ethical theories can have a number of significant benefits, which have the potential to shape and inform the care of patients, challenge bad practice and lead staff to. So, if Oliver had a wide network of adoring cat lovers because of his friendly, playful nature, unlike Benjy who prefers a life of peaceful solitude I should save Oliver as this would cause the least pain and produce the most pleasure for the people that know him. Gates KA. Is a theory of moral obligation their proponent puts it forth as a framework within which a person can correctly determine, on any given occasion, what he or she (morally) ought to do [ 2 ]. 2022 Jan 6;10(1):12. doi: 10.3390/pharmacy10010012. Deontology: sticking to your obligations and duties, so focusing on intentions rather than the outcomes of actions. Any consequentialist ethical theory has to provide a justification of how we decide which consequences are good or bad.
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